Working memory plays a crucial role in children’s cognitive development and academic achievement. As a limited-capacity system for temporarily storing and manipulating information, working memory underpins many essential learning processes. This review examines key aspects of working memory development that teachers and parents should understand, with a focus on classroom applications and early childhood. Drawing on recent scientific research, it explores how working memory capacity expands, the components involved, and evidence-based strategies to support children’s working memory skills.
Understanding Working Memory Development
Working memory undergoes significant development throughout childhood, with capacity increasing steadily from early childhood through adolescence (Gathercole et al., 2004). This expansion allows children to hold and manipulate increasingly complex information as they mature. Several key changes occur:
Capacity Increases
Studies show that working memory capacity approximately doubles between ages 5 and 15 (Cowan, 2016). For example, while 5-year-olds can typically hold about 2 items in visual working memory, adults can maintain around 3-4 items (Riggs et al., 2006). This growth enables older children to juggle more pieces of information simultaneously. Research by Luciana et al. (2005) demonstrated that spatial working memory capacity continues to improve into adolescence, with significant gains observed between ages 9-20.
Processing Speed Improves
The speed and efficiency of working memory processes also increase substantially. Faster processing reduces interference and allows quicker retrieval of information from long-term memory (Conway et al., 2008). This supports children in executing cognitive tasks more rapidly. A longitudinal study by Fry and Hale (2000) found that processing speed accounted for 71% of age-related improvements in working memory capacity between childhood and adolescence.
Strategy Use Develops
Older children employ more sophisticated strategies to support working memory, such as rehearsal, chunking information, and creating visual images (Gathercole, 1998). These strategies emerge around age 7 and become increasingly complex. Bjorklund et al. (2009) observed that children’s spontaneous use of rehearsal strategies increased significantly between ages 7-10, contributing to improved working memory performance.
Components Mature
Working memory comprises multiple components that show distinct developmental trajectories. The phonological loop for verbal information and visuospatial sketchpad for visual-spatial information are present early but increase in capacity (Baddeley, 2003). The central executive, responsible for attention control and manipulation of information, undergoes protracted development into adolescence (Best & Miller, 2010). Neuroimaging research by Tamnes et al. (2013) revealed that the maturation of frontal and parietal brain regions associated with working memory continues well into the twenties.
Understanding these developmental changes can help educators tailor instruction and support to children’s evolving working memory abilities.
Working Memory in the Classroom
Working memory constraints have significant implications for children’s learning and classroom performance. Key areas affected include:
Mathematics
Working memory capacity strongly predicts math achievement, especially in early primary school (Li & Geary, 2013). Children rely heavily on working memory to perform mental arithmetic, follow multi-step procedures, and solve word problems. Limited capacity can lead to errors and difficulty grasping new concepts. A study by Alloway and Passolunghi (2011) found that working memory at age 5 predicted mathematical achievement at age 7, highlighting its crucial role in early math development.
Reading Comprehension
Comprehending text requires holding information in mind while processing new input and making connections. Poor working memory is associated with difficulties following complex sentences and integrating ideas across passages (Cain et al., 2004). Research by Nouwens et al. (2017) demonstrated that working memory capacity significantly predicted reading comprehension skills in children aged 9-12, even after controlling for word reading ability.
Following Instructions
Children with working memory deficits often struggle to follow multi-step verbal directions. They may forget steps or confuse the sequence of actions (Gathercole et al., 2008). A study by Yang et al. (2014) found that working memory capacity was a strong predictor of children’s ability to follow classroom instructions, with implications for both academic performance and behaviour management.
Writing
Composing text places heavy demands on working memory as children must generate and organise ideas while attending to spelling, grammar, and handwriting (Kellogg, 1996). This can lead to simplified writing or unfinished work. Bourke and Adams (2003) observed that children with higher working memory capacity produced longer, more complex written compositions compared to their peers with lower capacity.
Attention and Behaviour
Limited working memory is linked to inattentive behaviour in class. Children may appear distracted or forgetful when cognitive load exceeds capacity (Alloway et al., 2009). A longitudinal study by Thorell (2007) found that poor working memory in preschoolers predicted symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in early school years, suggesting a strong link between working memory and classroom behaviour.
Recognising these impacts can help teachers identify when working memory may be constraining learning and adjust instruction accordingly.
Supporting Working Memory in the Classroom
While working memory capacity has a strong genetic component, research suggests various strategies can help children use their available resources more effectively:
Break Tasks into Steps
Complex tasks that exceed working memory limits should be broken into smaller, manageable chunks (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). For instance, instead of giving multi-step instructions, provide one or two steps at a time. Elliott et al. (2010) found that breaking down tasks into smaller steps significantly improved task completion rates for children with low working memory capacity.
Use Visual Aids
Visual supports like diagrams, charts, and written reminders can offload information from working memory (Dehn, 2008). Encourage children to refer to these aids during tasks. A study by Rasmussen and Bisanz (2005) demonstrated that visual representations improved young children’s performance on mathematical word problems by reducing working memory demands.
Teach Memory Strategies
Explicitly teach children strategies like rehearsal, visualisation, and chunking to enhance working memory (St Clair-Thompson et al., 2010). Model these techniques and provide opportunities for practice. Research by Peng and Fuchs (2017) showed that training in working memory strategies led to significant improvements in both working memory capacity and academic performance in children with learning difficulties.
Reduce Cognitive Load
Simplify language, highlight key information, and remove unnecessary distractions to reduce demands on working memory (Sweller et al., 2011). This allows children to focus on essential content. A study by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1994) found that reducing extraneous cognitive load in instructional materials led to improved learning outcomes, particularly for students with lower working memory capacity.
Encourage Active Processing
Have children repeat instructions, summarise key points, or teach concepts to peers. This promotes deeper processing and stronger memory encoding (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Research by Rittle-Johnson et al. (2008) demonstrated that explaining mathematical concepts to peers enhanced children’s conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills, likely due to increased active processing of information.
Build Automaticity
Developing automaticity in foundational skills like number facts or phonics reduces working memory load for higher-level tasks (Gathercole & Alloway, 2008). Provide ample practice opportunities. A longitudinal study by Geary et al. (2012) found that children who achieved greater automaticity in basic arithmetic facts showed better growth in more complex mathematical problem-solving skills over time.
Use Multisensory Approaches
Presenting information through multiple sensory channels (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic) can support working memory and learning (Baddeley, 2003). Research by Seitz et al. (2006) demonstrated that multisensory training led to enhanced learning and memory compared to unisensory approaches, suggesting that engaging multiple senses can help reinforce information in working memory.
Monitor Understanding
Regularly check children’s comprehension and retention of information. This allows timely support before working memory overload leads to confusion or frustration. A study by Gathercole et al. (2006) found that teacher assessments of working memory difficulties were significantly correlated with children’s performance on standardised working memory tasks, highlighting the importance of ongoing monitoring in the classroom.
Implementing these strategies can create a more working memory-friendly classroom environment and support children in accessing their full cognitive potential.
References
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As a research scientist specialising in cognitive neuroscience and psychology, I write a blog that explores the fascinating world of computational modelling and gamified Working Memory training. Through my writing, I share insights from my research on how these interventions affect learning and cognitive functions in both typically developing individuals and clinical populations. My blog delves into cognitive rehabilitation for people with brain injuries, neurodegenerative disorders, and neurodevelopmental conditions. I also discuss my work on assessing cognition, emotion, and behaviour, as well as understanding the biopsychosocial factors that impact everyday cognitive abilities. By translating complex scientific concepts into accessible content, I aim to provide a valuable resource for professionals and the general public interested in brain health and cognitive science.
Dorota Styk
The Author