The arrival of neuroimaging has revolutionized multiple scientific disciplines, offering unprecedented insights into human brain development and its intricate relationship with cognition, behavior, and affect. This powerful methodology has become indispensable for testing hypotheses regarding normative developmental processes, including memory consolidation, executive function, emotional regulation, goal-directed behavior, social cognition, and language acquisition. Moreover, neuroimaging has made substantial contributions to elucidating the pathophysiology of various neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and mood disorders (Rumsey & Ernst, 2009).
The evolution of neuroimaging techniques has been driven by the scientific community’s insatiable curiosity to comprehend the human brain’s structure, function, and developmental trajectory. From the rudimentary “human circulation balance” of the early 19th century to contemporary high-resolution methodologies such as high-density event-related potentials (HD-ERP), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional MRI (fMRI), these advancements have enabled researchers to observe and analyze the dynamic changes occurring in the developing brain.
Neuroimaging techniques have empowered researchers and clinicians to elucidate the distinctions between normative brain development and various neuropathological conditions or structural abnormalities. Furthermore, these methodologies facilitate the identification of specific brain regions activated during particular cognitive tasks, behavioral outputs, or emotional states (Rumsey & Ernst, 2009).
Cognitive Neuroscience and Language Processing
The continuous refinement of neuroimaging techniques, coupled with the burgeoning field of cognitive science, led to the emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the early 1970s. This interdisciplinary domain aims to elucidate the neural substrates underlying mental and cognitive functions (Wickens, 2009).
Neuroimaging studies focusing on language processing have yielded groundbreaking findings that have challenged and expanded upon previous conceptualizations of language-related brain areas. For instance, PET studies measuring cerebral blood flow during language-related tasks have revealed that the neural networks subserving language functions are more extensive than previously posited by the Wernicke-Geschwind model (Wickens, 2009).
Functional MRI investigations have corroborated and extended these findings, demonstrating that the Broca’s area is implicated in verb generation tasks (Sahin et al., 2006). Moreover, Pulvermüller (2000) reported somatotopic activation patterns in the motor cortex associated with the processing of action-related words, suggesting a tight coupling between language comprehension and sensorimotor systems.
Infant Cognitive Development
Due to the practical limitations of using fMRI with infants and young children, researchers have employed alternative neuroimaging techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) to investigate early language development, object recognition, processing, and categorization in infants (Gliga & Mareschal, 2007).
A study by Begus, Southgate, and Gliga (2015) utilized EEG to examine the relationship between frontal theta-band oscillations during object exploration and subsequent object recognition in infants. The researchers found that variations in frontal theta activity during exploration predicted differential recognition performance in a preferential-looking test, independent of the duration of manual exploration.
Structural and Functional Brain Development
Longitudinal MRI studies have revealed dramatic increases in total brain volume from birth through adolescence (Johnson & de Haan, 2015). This volumetric expansion is accompanied by substantial postnatal growth in synapses, dendrites, and fiber bundles (Strelau & Doliński, 2008).
Functional MRI studies investigating visuospatial working memory (VSWM) have demonstrated age-related changes in the engagement of the superior frontal sulcus (SFS) and intraparietal sulcus (IPS) from childhood to adulthood (Kwon et al., 2002; Klingberg et al., 2002). Olesen et al. (2003) combined fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data to show that increased fractional anisotropy in fronto-parietal white matter, indicative of enhanced structural connectivity, correlates positively with blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) activation in the SFS and IPS, as well as with VSWM capacity.
Neuroimaging in Clinical Applications
Neuroimaging techniques have significantly advanced our understanding of various neurological and psychiatric disorders. For instance, high-resolution MRI has become an essential tool in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment monitoring of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) (Tillema & Pirko, 2013).
In the realm of psychiatric research, neuroimaging has been instrumental in elucidating the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and other major psychotic disorders. Studies have identified brain changes that may serve as potential endophenotypes for schizophrenia, although the heterogeneity of brain structure within the schizophrenic population presents challenges for interpretation (Gottesman & Gould, 2003).
Furthermore, neuroimaging has informed pharmacological interventions for mental illnesses. For example, studies have suggested that mood-stabilizing medications may exert neuroprotective effects by upregulating neurotrophic factors in the mammalian frontal cortex (Manji et al., 2000).
In conclusion, the continuous advancement of neuroimaging techniques has profoundly impacted our comprehension of both normative and pathological brain development. These methodologies have not only enhanced our understanding of brain-behavior relationships but have also revolutionized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches across various neurological and psychiatric conditions (Rumsey & Ernst, 2009).
References
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As a research scientist specialising in cognitive neuroscience and psychology, I write a blog that explores the fascinating world of computational modelling and gamified Working Memory training. Through my writing, I share insights from my research on how these interventions affect learning and cognitive functions in both typically developing individuals and clinical populations. My blog delves into cognitive rehabilitation for people with brain injuries, neurodegenerative disorders, and neurodevelopmental conditions. I also discuss my work on assessing cognition, emotion, and behaviour, as well as understanding the biopsychosocial factors that impact everyday cognitive abilities. By translating complex scientific concepts into accessible content, I aim to provide a valuable resource for professionals and the general public interested in brain health and cognitive science.
Dorota Styk
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