Attachment Theory and its Impact on Understanding of Human Development

Work on the ideas now called Attachment Theory, initiated by the British psychologist and psychiatrist John Bowlby and the American-Canadian psychologist Mary Ainsworth, revolutionised previous ideas about human development. Bowlby, through numerous observations, concluded that the nature of the infant’s tie to his or her mother has profound developmental consequences. Ainsworth developed the concept of the mother-figure as a secure base from which the child can explore the world and introduced the idea of maternal sensitivity in recognising and responding to a child’s signals. However, both Bowlby and Ainsworth were influenced by Freud and his concept of the Oedipus Complex (Bretherton, 1992).

In the first stage of child development, the most important task is the formation of attachment, which is a natural, long-term, emotional bond between the child and the primary caregiver. During this period, the caregiver’s work is to skilfully recognise the infant’s physical or mental states, signalled through crying, clinging, agitation, or laughter. When a baby’s needs are consistently met, it learns that it is important and exists in a friendly environment. When the child feels tension, the mother takes steps to reduce it. Later in life, this is reflected in the child’s ability to self-regulate their emotional states (Strelau & Doliński, 2010). Bowlby (1951) concluded that the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with the mother, or a permanent mother substitute, in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment.

One of the most important elements of care for a baby is introducing stability and routine into the child’s environment. A sense of security is fostered by multiple, repetitive behaviours that accurately meet needs and reduce felt tension (Strelau & Doliński, 2010). Such routines include regular sleeping and feeding patterns, which give the child the feeling that the world is predictable and friendly, which in turn is reflected in the child’s perception of the world as safe.

Attachment behaviours (Bowlby, 1958), such as when a child increasingly prefers one or a few people over others, holds the mother, smiles at her, reaches for her, and becomes animated when she approaches, are not yet the complete form of attachment according to Attachment Theory. These proximity-seeking behaviours are initially directed towards several people, and none has yet become a true secure base (Ainsworth, 1989). Between three and six months of age, the child will happily accept other people besides the mother who spend time with them. In this phase of initiating social interactions, the child becomes more active, and the effects of successful attempts to interact shape subsequent strategies for establishing relationships with others (Strelau & Doliński, 2010). Managing a child’s emotional tension, such as distracting from unpleasant stimuli, will foster a positive attitude towards new experiences, give the child opportunities to engage in varied situations, and consequently increase their ability to explore and expand social contacts, which in turn accelerates social and cognitive development (Sroufe, 1995).

Around six months of age, all soothing and need-satisfying events become associated with the mother-figure. The child recognises the caregiver’s role in regulating their emotional states and their own abilities in achieving proximity with the caregiver. Above all, the child begins to see the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the surrounding world, which is the main signal of the formation of a full attachment. At this stage, the child is focused on the mother-figure and is often reluctant to see others in this role. Social referencing emerges in development at about ten months of age, when a child seeks cues from the reactions of others. Information from the caregiver will be used by the child to understand events (Strelau & Doliński, 2010) and will be important for their reactions later in life. Bowlby (1973, 1980) concluded that the experience of the mother-child relationship would have a generalised impact on the perception of the self and the world, and thus also on relationships with people. At this stage, the child begins to share their feelings and experiences with the mother. A caregiver with well-developed emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996) will be able to respond appropriately. This will serve as a basis for the subsequent ability to communicate effectively with others. When an infant turns six months old, the caregiver must adapt to the child’s new capabilities, as the child intentionally directs any problem towards the mother-figure to make contact. The mother-figure needs to help the child develop new capabilities for naturally regulating their emotions (Strelau & Doliński, 2010).

Differences in infant care lead to the formation of individual differences in beliefs about the world and the self, as well as in the capacity to control and express emotions when dealing with others. According to Strelau and Doliński (2010), the factors leading to a secure pattern of attachment are caregiver availability, both physical and psychological presence, caregiver sensitivity, the accurate perception of the child’s signals, their proper interpretation, and an adequate response that is consistent with the child’s needs rather than the caregiver’s own goals or plans. The patterns formed on the basis of early experience show relative stability in later stages of life. Although various factors such as living conditions, environment, or social relationships with peers can result in behavioural changes, the internal working models established in childhood show considerable continuity (Waters et al., 2000).

Waterman (1982) described the interdependence and autonomy in social and emotional functioning as the most important effect of proper care for the development of secure attachment. This refers to the establishment of close relationships with others while maintaining independence, without fear of losing autonomy but while retaining a sense of security. Children who, in the earliest period of life, reveal a strong relationship with the mother-figure, turn to her in times of difficulty, and are given the support they need, develop confidence that they will receive help when they ask for it. With this assurance, the child feels safe and confident in facing life’s adversities, more so than children who had to cope with problems alone without a secure base. The better-developed the attachment, the more the child is predisposed to develop a high level of independence and autonomy later in life (Strelau & Doliński, 2010).

Ainsworth (1963, 1967) reported in the Ganda Project that secure attachment was significantly correlated with maternal sensitivity. Babies of sensitive mothers tended to be more securely attached, whereas babies of less sensitive mothers were more likely to be classified as insecure (Bretherton, 1992). Following the Baltimore Project, Ainsworth introduced patterns of attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent, and insecure-disorganised. The consequences for the child’s continued functioning according to this classification are: for the secure pattern—the ability to establish and maintain close relationships, a belief in the kindness of people, the ability to self-regulate emotional states, correctly distinguishing the emotional states of others, and a willingness to engage in environmental exploration; for the insecure-ambivalent pattern—uncertainty in contact with the mother-figure, limited free exploration, a strong fear of separation, uncertainty in self-esteem, moodiness, and ambivalent behaviour often inadequate to the situation; for the insecure-avoidant pattern—fear of rejection and lack of support, a conviction of low self-worth, a perception of the world and others as hostile, a negative attitude, and difficulty recognising one’s own emotions; for the insecure-disorganised pattern—fear of the mother-figure, confusion in contact with the caregiver, a confused self-image, and an attribution of the external world as dangerous.

Throughout life, human beings enter into all kinds of relationships that can in some way be related to attachment theory, for example, marriage, same-sex relationships, and friendships. Even a teenager in a peer group, while not specifically attached to any single member, may feel a form of attachment to the group itself, believing it is important and deriving a sense of safety from this membership (Ainsworth, 1989). According to Weiss (1982), an attachment similar to friendship exists between members of the military, who share similar interests, offer each other proximity and protection, and for whom separation and loss lead to a sense of grief. According to Heinicke and Westheimer (1965), older siblings can assume the role of mother-figure for younger siblings if, for example, parents die. Ainsworth (1989) cited the results of Stewart (1983), who concluded that three- to four-year-olds tend to care for younger siblings when their mother leaves them in a waiting room for a while.

The study by Jaffari-Bimmel et al. (2006) showed that social development in adulthood is the result of an individual’s developmental history and previous experiences (Bowlby, 1973, 1980). They stated that development is the interplay between a changing environment and a changing individual, but early experiences and adaptations do not fade away. Instead, they indirectly shape future adaptation through their influence on intermediary developmental steps. Schore (1994) reported that an infant’s transactions with the early socio-emotional environment indelibly influence the evolution of brain structures responsible for the individual’s socio-emotional functioning for the rest of the lifespan. Malekpour (2007) stated that experience can either positively or negatively influence the maturation of brain structures, and therefore the psychological development of the infant.

Studies by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and other researchers have shown how important it is to respond correctly to the signals sent by a child to address their troubled emotional states. Malekpour assumed that the environment provided by the child’s primary caregivers has a tremendous impact on all aspects of a child’s early development as well as their later life and stated that incorrect childcare leads to maladjustments in attachment development. The person who, during childhood, had the assurance of a secure base has a more positive attitude towards life, forms relationships more easily, and functions better in life. A person’s positive emotional qualities are owed to a strong attachment to a caregiver who skilfully provided a secure base.